By Jessica Ryan, Public Affairs Specialist, United States Department of Agriculture
Researchers at the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Agricultural Research Service (ARS) bred four cotton lines that can be used to make self-extinguishing textiles when exposed to fire and will reduce the need for flame-retardant chemicals to be embedded in consumer products, according to a recent study published in PLOS ONE.
The cotton lines were developed from cultivated cotton varieties and possessed a novel flame-retardant trait. When exposed to an open flame, the fabric from the new cotton lines self-extinguished whereas regular cotton fabric burned entirely in seconds.
“Use of these lines to develop commercial cultivars creates an opportunity to improve the safety of cotton products while reducing the economic and environmental impacts of chemical flame retardants,” said Brian Condon, senior author of the study and retired research leader at the ARS Cotton Chemistry and Utilization Research Unit in New Orleans. “These lines will significantly benefit growers, producers, and consumers.”
During a standard 45° incline flammability test, regular cotton (seen on the top row) burned instantly when exposed to an open flame. In the same test, the fire-resistant cotton (seen on the bottom row) self-extinguished when exposed to an open flame.
Cotton typically produces flammable fibers and is treated with chemicals to be flame retardant when used for consumer products like clothing, mattresses, upholstery, and carpet. The new cotton lines were created by a multi-parent breeding approach that resulted in new opportunities for natural genes to interact and develop the unexpected trait of flame retardancy.
ARS researchers Johnie Jenkins and Jack C. McCarty, supervisory research geneticists at the ARS Genetics and Sustainable Agriculture Research Unit in Mississippi, bred cotton lines to identify genes that affect agronomic traits such as yield and pest resistance and fiber quality traits such as length, strength, and fineness.
“ARS scientists study every step of cotton production from ‘Dirt to Shirt’ including genetic diversity, field management practices, fiber quality attributes, and end-use textile characteristics,” said Jenkins.
Although all of the parental cotton lines produced flammable fabric, researchers found that flame retardance did not come from a single gene. Instead, they found that multiple genes created a phenotype for fibers with significantly lower heat release capacities. The new cotton lines also possessed the desired agronomic and fiber quality traits, making the lines sought after for breeding and consumer usage.
“We look at fabric quality and chemical finishes that create permanent press, wrinkle-free, and flame-retardant fabrics. Now we have found lines with a novel and natural genetic mechanism for flame retardance,” said Condon.
According to Gregory Thyssen, Computational Biologist at the ARS Southern Regional Research Center in New Orleans:
Further research about the durability of the flame-resistant property in different types of fabrics, yarn, textiles and after multiple washings, is still ongoing. This will help us determine what uses of cotton will benefit the most from this novel property. Further study to identify the metabolite that produces the natural flame retardance is also ongoing, and will help us further clarify the genes involved in its biosynthetic pathway, and therefore the key genes for breeders to incorporate into their new cultivars. The current paper found that an unexpected combination of genes is likely the cause of the novel [fire resistant] property, but for breeding to be efficient, we will work to narrow the list to the most important ones.
The flame-resistant lines will be released to cotton breeders by Johnie Jenkins and Jack McCarty who developed the MAGIC (multi-parent advanced generation intercross) population. Cotton breeders will be able to use these lines in their breeding programs to combine this new flame-resistant trait with other traits on which they have already been focused, including pest and stress tolerance, fiber quality and geographic optimization. However, since these lines were derived from already cultivated lines, they already possess many of these other desirable traits. So, once sufficient seed is available, these lines could be grown for cotton production. So, likely, two years until growers could grow these lines and [approximately] five years until breeders have incorporated the trait into commercial lines.
Go here to watch a video of fire-resistant cotton versus regular cotton in flammability testing.
Photo Credits: 1) A field of cotton bolls (Kimberly Vardeman via Wikimedia); 2) Cotton flammability testing (Doug Hinchliffe); 3) A roll of cotton cloth (PickPik); 4) Cotton in flower (Christine Moore)
Jessica Ryan is a public affairs specialist with the Agricultural Research Service, Office of Communications, Media Relations ranch of the USDA.
Recipe from the Healthy Hildegard website:
Shanon Sterringer holds a PhD in Ethical and Creative Leadership (focused on the model of St. Hildegard of Bingen); a DMin, two master’s degrees (MA in theology and MA in ministry), and a BA in Medieval History. She is the founding pastor of the Hildegard Haus in Fairport Harbor, OH, and the owner of The Green Shepherdess Fair-Trade shop and local art studio, also in Fairport Harbor. She has traveled to the Rhine Valley several times since 2015 (most recently in January 2023) to walk in the footsteps of St. Hildegard. She has dedicated the last ten years of her life to studying Hildegard’s charism, most particularly as it relates to holistic health and spirituality. While on sabbatical in 2019, Shanon spent most of the year learning about herbs while working for a local herbalist, Lynn Abbey, at Blue Lake Botanicals in Willoughby, Ohio. Shanon is married and the mother of three adult daughters and has published two books on the topic of Hildegard (Forbidden Grace and 30 Day Journey with St. Hildegard). A third book (focused on the material recorded in Physica) is in process. Shanon has offered many retreats and educational presentations on the topic of Hildegard and Herbs, including a variety of online classes/seminars and a presentation at the Cleveland Botanical Gardens for the Western Reserve Herb Society.
German chamomile, 
Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans used chamomile as a medicine. Greek physicians Hippocrates and Dioscorides, and Roman physician Galen wrote about the medicinal uses of the herb. They used it to treat digestive issues, fever, and pain. It was also used to treat skin conditions. The root word of the plant’s botanical name, “matricaria”, is from the word “matrix,” which in Latin means “womb.” It was given this name because chamomile was used to treat gynecological problems and sleep disorders related to premenstrual syndrome. 
During the Middle Ages, chamomile was a common remedy for sleeplessness, anxiety, and digestive problems. It was believed to have anti-inflammatory properties so was also used to heal wounds and reduce swelling. Chamomile, because of its pleasant scent, was also used as a strewing herb in medieval homes. The name chamomile comes from the Greek word meaning “earth apple”, referring to the apple scent of the plant. By the 16
More than 120 chemical components have been identified in chamomile flowers, mostly in the essential oil. It’s interesting to note that the plant is sometimes called “blue chamomile” because of the blue color of its essential oil. The color is due to the azulene that is released during distillation (Mountain Rose, n.d.). Chamomile flowers contain pollen, so people who are sensitive to ragweed and chrysanthemum or other members of the Asteraceae family should be cautious about drinking chamomile tea (Kowalchik, 1998).
German chamomile is an easy plant to grow. Seeds can be planted directly into the soil in the spring or fall. It is an annual, but it reseeds itself readily. It is a drought tolerant plant and if the soil is fertile, it will sport its flowers on thicker stalks. The plant can grow 2-3 feet tall and likes full sun or partial shade. The flowers should be harvested often or the plant cut back to encourage new growth and new flowers. Flowers are fragrant and can be used fresh or dried. The leaves of the plant are also edible. Roman chamomile 
From as early as I can remember, I have been completely smitten by the beauty and versatility of roses. As I have mentioned before, my father was a passionate gardener who loved heirloom roses. Being a trained biologist, he knew the value of gardening organically, and he promoted the benefits of mycorrhizal fungi in the late 70s to strengthen the roots of his garden plants. Instead of using fungicides and pesticides, he planted fragrant herbs among the roses, knowing that many common rose pests would be deterred by the essential oils that they released. He would always tell me, “Remember Beth Ann, feed the roots first and forget about the flowers, because if you feed the roots, the flowers will always be healthy and beautiful.” This is a piece of advice I have followed to this day with real success.
Like many artists for centuries before him, my father used his roses as inspiration for his paintings, and my mother always arranged beautiful vases full of them all around the house. Because my father grew them organically, she used their petals liberally to decorate her serving platters, trifles, and cakes. She taught me that beyond their stunning beauty, roses have a vast array of uses that make them a valuable addition to any stillroom, and I am continually amazed by their versatility. From their use in cookery and perfumery, to their health benefits and sheer beauty, roses are a versatile and beloved plant that has left an indelible mark on our history and culture. In so many of our homes, they are a beloved decorative element in our gardens and floral arrangements. 
Heirloom roses are not only renowned for their beauty but also for their flavor and fragrance. Roses are a versatile ingredient that can be used in both sweet and savory dishes. The best roses for culinary use are those that are highly fragrant and have a sweet flavor, and no category fits that better than the Historic or Heirloom roses. These are the tried and true, many of them centuries old. I’ve always found these easy to grow, they’re hardy, and in my experience, thrive with a bit of benign neglect. They don’t need to be fussed over to produce beautiful and blowsy blooms—just fed well and occasionally pruned. I’ve even grown them in containers on balconies of apartments I’ve lived in and been very successful at it. 
There are many classes of roses, each with its unique taste and scent. One of the most popular roses for flavor and fragrance are the beautiful Damask roses. They possess a strong aroma and a sweet, spicy taste, making them ideal for use in cooking, perfumery, and body care products. Damask roses have been used for centuries in the production of rose water, rose oil, and various other rose-based products. Damask roses are also used in the preparation of Turkish delight, rosewater, and pistachio nougat, and other sweet treats. My Aunt Pat used to flavor the Marzipan that she made us every Christmas with the rosewater that she would bring back from her travels. It made that already delicious treat even more magical.
Every rose lover has their ultimate favorite, and mine is undoubtedly the Apothecary’s Rose (Rosa gallica officinalis). The Apothecary’s Rose is an incredibly beautiful rose with a uniquely spicy fragrance and deep pink blooms, making it a popular ornamental plant in addition to its many uses.
I’m often asked for what I believe to be the best way to capture a rose scent and flavor for cooking. For me, the easiest way to do this is by infusing them into granulated sugar. It is important to use unsprayed and organic roses. Simply mix several handfuls of fresh and fragrant rose petals into a jar of sugar, and let them sit in a cool, dark place for a few days. When you next open the jar, you will be amazed by the scent. The sugar will have taken on the flavor and fragrance of the roses, making it perfect for use in baking or as a sweetener in drinks. You can also make candied rose petals by painting each petal on both sides with an egg white wash or simple syrup and then sprinkling each petal liberally with finely granulated sugar. Lay each petal on a piece of parchment paper and allow them to dry. These can be stored in an airtight jar and used to decorate all kinds of wonderful recipes.
For a more elaborate recipe, try making a simple rose syrup. To do this, simmer two cups of honey and three cups of water in a pot until the honey dissolves. Add several cups of fresh rose petals, several cinnamon sticks, and a vanilla bean, and simmer for a few more minutes. Take it from the heat, and let it cool for several hours. Strain the mixture, and store the syrup in a jar in the refrigerator. You can use rose syrup to make rose lemonade or add it to cocktails or plain seltzer for a floral twist. This syrup is also delicious stirred into a custard or rice pudding!
In addition to their delicious flavor and fragrance, roses also have many health benefits. Rose hip tea is a popular herbal tea that is made from the fruit of the rose plant. It has a light, floral flavor and can be enjoyed hot or cold and is believed to have a calming effect on the body and mind, making it a popular choice for reducing stress and promoting relaxation. I generally harvest my rose hips in the fall after the first frost. They’ll be ugly and wrinkled at that time, but that’s when they are ready to use! Rose hips are packed with vitamin C and antioxidants, making them a great immune-boosting drink. Steep cracked, dried rose hips in hot water for 10-15 minutes. You can also add whole cloves, dried ginger, and orange slices. I personally love to blend my own rose petal teas using tulsi (holy basil), cinnamon, clove, spearmint, and lemon balm as a base.
Finally, rose baths and other soaks are a great way to relax and relieve stress. Add fresh or dried rose petals, several drops of rose essential oil, and powdered milk to a warm bath for a luxurious soak. You can also make a rose foot soak by adding rose petals and Epsom salt to a basin of warm water. Rose essential oil is extracted from the petals of the rose through steam distillation and is widely used in aromatherapy for its relaxing and calming properties. It is believed to promote emotional well-being, reduce stress, and improve mood. I add rose essential oil to carrier oils like jojoba or sweet almond oil to create a luxurious massage oil or you can add it to a diffuser to create a relaxing atmosphere in your home or office. Additionally, rose water, a by-product of the steam distillation process, is a popular facial toner and can be used to hydrate and refresh the skin.
Though declared the most widespread of juniper species and appearing widely across the United States, there are eighteen states in which Juniperus communis does not grow as a native: NJ, DE, MD, WV, KY, MO, IA, NE, KS, OK, AR, TN, AL, MS, LA, TX, or HI. Those states may have other juniper species, or cultivated plants, but Juniperus communis is not native to their soil (Flora of North America)
Well-known to us as the flavoring in gin, juniper species have been known in this country for many years for a multitude of purposes, from culinary, medicinal, and insect control to ceremonial and utility uses. 
There are many recipes for using juniper berries, which can now be found in the spice section of many grocery stores. While some may find the taste a bit strong or resinous, others find it adds wonderful flavor to meat dishes, vegetables, and even baked goods. 
We learned from Indigenous Peoples to dry, then powder, the fruits, using the powder much as we do black pepper. Others teach burning the leaves, pouring boiling water over the ashes, straining the liquid, and using it as a flavoring.
Chives, 
Due to the sulfur compounds in chives, they have been used as insect repellent in gardens throughout history. It is particularly effective against Japanese beetles. Despite their sulfur smell, chive flowers attract bees and other pollinators to the garden. In a study conducted by the UK Insect Pollinators Initiative’s Agriland Project in 2014, chives were named as one of the ten highest sugar producing plant species for pollinators (Memmott, 2014). It also has been found that the juice in chive leaves is effective in combating some fungal infections and mildew, giving another great benefit to having it growing in the rose garden since roses are susceptible to fungal pathogens. 
Chives are also a good addition to rock gardens, with their roots keeping dirt from washing out from between the rocks. They would be a nice addition to fairy gardens with their green spiky stalks and purple flowers. Chives can be grown indoors on a sunny window sill for convenient use in cooking. When harvesting chives, it is recommended to cut the stalks just above the soil line to promote new growth of stems and bulbs. Stems should be cut several times during the growing season. 
Chives have been used as a medicinal plant for 5,000 years. It is said that Marco Polo brought chives to the west from his travels to China where they’d been used as a medicinal and culinary plant for 2,000 years. The Romans used them to treat sunburn and sore throat, as a diuretic, and to reduce blood pressure. Pliny the Elder, in his book 
Today, according to researchers, chives and other members of its family are being looked at for their usefulness in medicine. According to Varinder Singh et al., “
Then, as HSA President, she made almost weekly trips from Hudson, Ohio, to Washington, DC, to consult with attorneys and federal officials on behalf of The Society. According to a tribute to Genevieve written by Past President Madalene Hill,
Once Genevieve secured this agreement, she called upon her old friend, Kathrine Patch, for fundraising help. Katherine had assisted Elsetta Barnes, ASLA (one of the first women landscape architects and designer of the current WRHS herb garden), in raising funds for the WRHS herb garden. As the story goes, Elsetta asked Katherine to be the treasurer of this project. “But,” exclaimed Katherine, “I’ve never been treasurer of anything in my life.” “Don’t you pay your bills?” responded Elsetta. “I guess I do,” replied Katherine. And suddenly, Katherine had a new job! Katherine used this experience to raise the initial funds for the National Herb Garden.
From a single idea of a national herb garden to its dedication, the women of The Herb Society of America got the job done. Cheers to these women as we celebrate Women’s History Month.
Long before humans roamed the forests, fairies are said to have taken up residence in the cavities of trees, forming fairy houses where they took refuge. Dating back to the Middle Ages, fairy folklore says that these little beings possess supernatural powers. 
The first step to creating a magical miniature garden is to dream up what you want the garden to be. A good way to do that is to start with a theme. Just like when you throw a party, knowing the theme allows you to plan and design the garden better.
For your cottage garden, you can’t use large flowering plants like foxglove or larkspur as you’d find in a human-sized landscape, but you can bring flowers to your Lilliputian paradise with small blooming plants like Erodium spp. (stork’s bill, heron’s bill) and miniature roses (Rosa sp.). Many trailing herbs, such as the aptly named ‘Elfin’ thyme, also flower in the spring. Polka Dot Plant (Hypoestes) adds color to your fairy garden all year long.
The way to put life into your fairy garden is to add some action. Set the stage in your fairy garden by creating the illusion that something is going on. The secret is to give the viewer the “idea” of movement. What creates that illusion is how the fairy relates to her (or his) environment.
Choose a container with drainage holes that has enough space to arrange your planned scene and is at least eight inches deep. Use a high-quality potting soil. When choosing plants, ensure all of them are either full sun or shade. 
Anise or aniseed, 
The seeds that anise produces are actually the fruit of the plant. It is these fruits that can be used either whole or ground to add a licorice flavor to food. The leaves of the plant can also be used for tea, sprinkled on salads, or as flavoring in soups and stews. Anise is the flavoring used in many licorice candies, and is also used in pastries such as pfefferneusse, springerle, and pizzelle cookies. The flavor goes well with eggs, fruit, cheese, and vegetables. It is also used in a number of alcoholic drinks such as pastis, anisette, raki, and ouzo. Most cuisines have used anise as a flavoring for a very long time.
Anise has a long history of use in traditional medicines. It has been used to treat respiratory and gastrointestinal conditions, migraines, skin infections, mental distress, and hormonal issues, although there is not enough human clinical evidence to support the effectiveness of these uses today (Singletary, 2022). The Egyptians wrote about using anise nearly 4,000 years ago as a diuretic, as a treatment for digestive issues, and for relieving toothache pain. Greek and Roman writers including Pliny the Elder and Hippocrates wrote about the use of anise as a treatment for coughs and as a breath freshener. Even the mathematician Pythagoras weighed in on the benefits of anise saying that it could cure epilepsy! Today, the essential oil is used in cough preparations, as well as gum and oral health products (Singletary, 2022).
Anise was not only used as medicine and as flavoring, it was also used to lure animals into traps. In the 16
It seems that as I continue my career in horticulture, there are plants that I come back to over time. With my recent move to Wyoming, I have come back to a lot of plants that are familiar from my childhood in western South Dakota. One of those is rubber rabbitbrush, Ericameria nauseosa. When I first learned it, it was Chrysothamnus nauseosus, but taxonomists assigned it to a different genus. I first knew it from visits to Badlands National Park where it grew as a low, billowy shrub among the desolation of nearly white decomposed Pierre Shale. 
Fast forward to last fall when I arrived in Cheyenne to look for a new home. It had been a dry year, as they often are here, and anything that was not watered frequently was dormant and brown. Rubber rabbitbrush, however, had burst into bloom with its golden flowers covering each defiantly green shrub. I passed by one home with much of its front yard devoted to the shrub, and upon close inspection, I discovered that the stems were an attractive shade of green. The ones I knew from South Dakota had gray stems. It turns out there are two subspecies—Ericameria nauseosa ssp. consimilis has green stems and is more western in its distribution, while Ericameria nauseosa ssp. nauseosa has gray stems and is more eastern.
The species name refers to the smell of the foliage when crushed. It is described as pineapple-like by some and as foul and rubbery by others. While the scent may depend on the sniffer, the fact that the whole plant contains rubber in high amounts is beyond doubt. As early as World War II, it was studied as a potential domestic source of rubber when much of the world’s rubber production fell into Japanese hands. It is a small source of industrial rubber today. Perhaps one of the factors limiting its use as a source of rubber is the long time of six years that it takes for the plant to reach a stage of maximum rubber content. Curiously, the rubber found in rubber rabbitbrush is not in the form of latex; it is rather in the form of solids in the inner bark and outer ring of xylem just inside the bark. Ericameria nauseosa ssp. consimilis may have up to 4% rubber by dry weight, double the amount for Ericameria nauseosa ssp. nauseosa. The rubber from rubber rabbitbrush is also free of the proteins that cause problems for those with allergies. 
I was interested to learn why rubber rabbitbrush is only of minor commercial importance. It turns out that guayule, Parthenium argentatum, was designated as “the official crop for domestic production of rubber” (Bowers, 1990) even though it is not as cold hardy as rubber rabbitbrush. Even plants cannot escape politics. Perhaps it is the six years needed to reach peak rubber production. It may also be the quality of the rubber, which is judged by the molecular weight of each carbon chain; longer chains and higher molecular weight are desired. Rubber rabbitbrush does not have the highest molecular weight (Ma, 2019), and that may be why it is not widely grown or harvested for commercial rubber.
The leaves and trichomes also contain about 35 percent resin by dry weight. The resin contains aromatic (in the hydrocarbon ring sense, not in the olfactory sense) terpenoid compounds that could be used in manufacturing plastics. Some of the terpenoids may be used as nematicides and insecticides (Finley and Neiland, 2013).
There is a wide median just outside the Cheyenne Botanic Gardens in the middle of Carey Avenue. Upon arriving in my position as Director, I was told that the City of Cheyenne had a thought that this expanse of turf should become a water-wise landscape with native plants. Of course, rubber rabbitbrush is one of the plants that comes to mind. Its deep root system and ability to withstand high pH and salinity make it one of the few plants that might succeed in this tough spot. The soft, billowy texture created by the fine branching habit and tiny leaves in summer, the stunning and bright yellow flowers that cover the shrub in late summer and early fall, the fluffy seed heads that follow and persist well into winter, and the stunning green stems make it lovely in every season. It is heavily used as a pollen and nectar source by native bee species, because it produces so many flowers when very few plants are in bloom.
Rubber rabbitbrush may grow as tall as six feet. Plant Select® has selected a compact cultivar called Baby Blue that tops out at 28 inches if the species is too tall for you. Because it can recover quickly from hard pruning and blooms on new growth, you can also cut it back nearly to the ground in late winter or early spring to keep it in bounds.
The Herb Society of America Blog 